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To what extent was Victorian London marked by sweeping progress and ingenuity?
E.H. Carr commented that âbetween the middle of [the 1800s] and 1914, it was scarcely possible for a British historian to conceive of historical change except as change for the betterâ. By contrast, the modern view is that mere change is not synonymous with âprogressâ â the change must be beneficial in some way. Ingenuity refers to the quality of being clever, original, and inventive. The Victorian Era (1837-1901) was one of unparalleled upheaval and change, most markedly, perhaps, in its epicentre: London. Victorian London did see remarkable ingenuity and several areas of progress. When comparing a multitude of factors â technology and science, industrialisation, social issues, politics â against a benchmark of standards from before the Victorian period, a majority saw swathes of change. Ingenuity was sweeping, but progress was not, however, universal.
Victorian London did see remarkable ingenuity and several areas of progress.
For many, the zeitgeist of 19th Century London is one of worsening environmental health, smog, and sickness, as well as another key issue: wealth inequality. These things can be easily criticised from our modern 21st Century standpoint but it must be remembered that the majority opinions and scientific understanding of these issues were very different at the time. Care must be taken not to judge historical events too harshly against the standards of today, influenced by modern concerns of climate change and gender equality. For example: Londonâs coal consumption grew from 3.5 million tons each year in 1854 to 10 million in 1880, paving the way for the climate crisis.
One field in which the progress and ingenuity in the Victorian era was sweeping, is that of science and technology. Charles Darwin published his controversially trailblazing work âOn the Origin of Speciesâ in 1859, challenging centuries of deeply-held religious convictions. Another significant discovery, for public health, was that of John Snowâs microbes. In the 1850s, he produced his Germ Theory, which stated that diseases are caused by microorganisms invading the body, after his study of the London cholera outbreak. Although this was consolidated later by French chemist Louis Pasteur, the initial unearthing was conducted by Snow, a Londoner. These are constituents of a much larger picture of Victorian Londonâs invention and ingenuity. Many theories, such as those outlined here, are used today â albeit refined â as the scientifically accurate models for how the world works. Though dismissed as blasphemy at the time, Darwinian evolution by natural selection is now taught widely around the world, and this led to many other discoveries such as those of our ancestral species and predictions for future iterations of homo sapiens. Sweeping scientific breakthroughs â both progress and ingenuity â in Victorian London have gone on to create rapid progress in our understanding of the world.
An area of some, though not sweeping, progress was industrialisation. Victoriaâs reign saw an enormous boom in industrial activity across Britain, and, by extension, throughout the world. With London at its heart, it experienced extraordinary industrial transformation fuelled by the contemporaneous scientific breakthroughs. At the start of the 1800s, just 20% of the countryâs population lived in cities, with the rest in rural towns and villages with a subsistence-based, agrarian economy. By mid-century, this had ballooned to over 50%. This rapid urbanisation of London was dramatic and led to a significant increase in physical area, and population density. This amounts to progress in pure size.
As well as this, steam power in factories and transportation revolutionised what was possible inside and outside cities, with more production capability and far greater distances that could be travelled. The opening of the Metropolitan Railway in 1863 was a particular highlight of this in London. Though this invention was made by James Watt in 1769, it was refined much further in the 19th Century, with more commercial applications being developed, such as to run entire factories.
With these urban and industrial âdevelopmentsâ, there was undoubtedly sweeping change, but this did not always bring sweeping benefits. Often, to support their families with higher living costs in London compared to the rural countryside, children would be forced to work in factories and up chimneys, their physical size being a motivational factor for their employment. In this way, several forms of âprogressâ masked different, often unseen, realities: exceptionally poor living and working conditions, low pay and child labour being several of these. For many poorer members of society, it was an unforgiving and difficult existence, but for a lucky few, new opportunities brought previously inconceivable wealth. Overall, the progress towards efficiency and industrial capacity was immense, but this was counter-balanced by inhumane working conditions, rendering net progress and ingenuity as not being sweeping.
A factor towards which minimal progress was made and no ingenuity demonstrably applied, is social and wealth inequality. By the middle of the century, rich businesspeople grew ever wealthier because of booming industry, driven by scientific and technological advancements and machine-fuelled factories and transportation. At the same time, enticing promises of good, stable work in cities, especially London, drew rural communities towards them, resulting in a massively increasing population. The reality they found was not as they had imagined with most workers condemned to âdesperately poor housing conditions, long working hours, the ravages of infectious disease and premature deathâ[3] and appallingly low pay. This fed problems of overworked workers and child labour. A drawing from London News in 1867 of a new wing of the Marylebone workhouse shows religious messages on the ceilings above squalid living areas; just one example of institutionalised dehumanisation of societyâs poor. This is not âprogressâ or âingenuityâ.
The workhouse, by modern standards, seems a woefully inadequate approach to deal with the rising levels of destitution. Hallie Rubenhold, in her book âThe Fiveâ, which recounted the lives of the five victims of âJack the Ripperâ in Victorian London, described that âone of the workhouseâs primary functions was to humiliate those who were forced to rely upon itâ. She goes on to describe âPoor sanitation, restricted access to water, exposure to verminâ, these things made especially shocking as they âwere well known among those who gazed at its walls from the outside.â Â By any standard, living conditions were objectively terrible. This social housing in its most basic form was undignified and cruel but deemed necessary to cope with Londonâs new demography. During the period, wealth divides became greater, but with large cities like London came opportunities of entrepreneurship and variety of work. There was more potential for people to escape a deficient, subsistent lifestyle and reap the rewards of a burgeoning city, representing some, not sweeping, progress.
An area in which sweeping progress did occur, is education. Undoubtedly, education is one of the most important factors in human and societal development. This could include scientific and medical practice and research, business and entrepreneurship and any higher-skilled job that requires a certain level of literacy, numeracy, and general intelligence. Although far-removed from our modern comprehensive education system, major strides were made on this during the Victorian period. In 1876, the âSandon Actâ was passed, âimpos[ing] a legal duty on parents to ensure that their children were educatedâ, and further acts were passed in 1880 (compulsory from ages 5-10) and later in 1893 (raised to age 11) which dealt with the school leaving age(s). Unfortunately, measures to maintain attendance often proved ineffectual. Nevertheless, by the latter half of Victoriaâs reign, all parents were obliged to have their children educated to some minimum age, which would provide a basic level of literacy, increasing employability and their ability to contribute to a rapidly changing economy. A document in the National Archives entitled âTime Table at the Hampton School of Industryâ details various lessons including arithmetic, scripture, and catechism. While not comparable with the wide range of subjects in modern London schools, the very fact of there being compulsory and free educational provision at all was a major leap forward from previous centuries.
As detailed in âthe Spread of Literacy in Nineteenth-Century Englandâ, in 1840, two-thirds of all grooms and half of all brides in England and Wales were able to sign their names at marriage; in 1900, 97 percent of each group was able to do so. Admittedly, the signing of names is not the only indicator of literacy rates, and the use of marriage certificates may be an unreliable testing ground given a usual minimum level of stability and wealth which marriage tended to involve, and therefore a higher tendency of married couples to have completed some schooling.
This notwithstanding, there was still an evident improvement. The fact remains, that by almost any metric, education improved, unlocking sectors of society that would have been unreachable for most previously. Changes during the period also lay the groundwork for future educational advancements which began to resemble the system that is commonplace today. For these reasons, Victorian London presented the best access to education in history, and this was a clear mark of sweeping progress for all concerned.
As for political and social change, the Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 granted more sections of the population the vote. However, reforms still did not allow women and some of the poorest in Victorian Britain to vote. This was curiously asynchronous with the scientific advancements happening concurrently, as although huge progress was made on this front, it was not well-reflected in social and political change.
In the Victorian era The British Empire grew to its greatest extent, increasing the millions persecuted by British rule, which clearly does not constitute progress. A starkly binary allocation of gender roles and increasing social conservatism was incongruous with the progress that had been made elsewhere. Members of Victorian high society remained preoccupied with propriety and afforded minimal agency to women. Women, as well as being unable to vote, had no private property when married for much of the era. Portrayed poignantly by Dickens in âGreat Expectationsâ, the well-respected Ms Havisham was abandoned on her wedding day, never to leave the house or resume any normalcy. Without the âstrongâ male figure, the Victorian woman was incomplete and inadequate. This reflects a similar system, both amongst the agrarian working class and the nobility that had been in place prior to the period and hence there was little visible progress. The arrival of many trailblazers was delayed until the 20th Century, when much of the modern progress on this was made.
The feeling of the time gleaned from contemporary literature suggests otherwise, but some progress, despite limitations, occurred. The Married Womenâs Property Act, 1882 is one key example. This was the first time that married women were legally able to own property. Compared to womenâs rights before, this act represented a clear improvement. Ultimately though, despite partial redemption from this act in the latter part of the century, progress and ingenuity on political and social issues cannot be classed as sweeping.
Above all, Victorian London was marked by vast ingenuity. Transformed industries and technologies, scientific breakthroughs, and cultural landmarks were achieved and established. This, including the examples outlined, made London a global beacon of innovation and advancement. They plainly demonstrate sweeping ingenuity.
The question of progress, however, is more nuanced. Though there is evidence of progress in many ways, it often brought corresponding problems. Where opportunities and wealth grew, poverty and wealth inequality increased and where the industries of the day quickly modernised, the stage was set for future environmental and social crises.
Ultimately, net progress was made across the many contributing factors of a successful society. However, to generalise it as being âsweepingâ as has been the popular historiographical presentation, would be unfair. Indeed, this would be an injustice to those who endured poor living standards brought by industrialisation, persecution in British colonies and thousands of workers trapped in undignified working and living conditions.
